The rise of bioplastics as a sustainable alternative
Bioplastics are emerging as a promising alternative to traditional plastics, driven by the need for more sustainable options. This review article offers an in-depth analysis of the entire life cycle of bioplastics, from raw material cultivation to manufacturing and disposal, with a focus on environmental impacts at each stage.
It emphasizes the significance of adopting sustainable agricultural practices and selecting appropriate feedstock to improve environmental outcomes. The review highlights the detrimental effects of unsustainable farming methods, such as pesticide use and deforestation, which can lead to soil erosion, water pollution, habitat destruction, and increased greenhouse gas emissions. To address these challenges, the article advocates for the use of efficient extraction techniques and renewable energy sources, prioritizing environmental considerations throughout the production process.
Furthermore, the article explores methods for reducing energy consumption, water usage, and chemical inputs during manufacturing by implementing eco-friendly technologies. It stresses the importance of developing robust disposal systems for biodegradable materials and supports recycling initiatives to minimize the need for new resources.
The review takes a holistic approach to sustainability, including responsible feedstock cultivation, efficient production practices, and effective end-of-life management. It underscores the need to evaluate the potential of bioplastics to reduce plastic pollution, considering technological advancements, infrastructure development, and increased consumer awareness.
Bioplastics: A growing sustainable solution
Bioplastics are materials made from renewable sources like plants, biomass, or microorganisms, offering a more sustainable alternative to traditional plastics (Rosenboom, Langer & Traverso, 2022). They can be bio-based, biodegradable, or both (Cywar et al., 2022). The goal of bioplastics is to address the environmental issues linked with conventional plastics, which are made from fossil fuels and have harmful effects throughout their life cycle, from extraction and production to use and disposal (Atiwesh et al., 2021).
Bioplastics aim to reduce environmental impact by offering several benefits: lower carbon footprints, better resource conservation, less waste, and support for a circular economy (Degli Esposti et al., 2021). Bio-based bioplastics often use crops or forestry by-products, which helps cut carbon emissions and reduces reliance on fossil fuels (Mongkoldhumrongkul & Sukkanta, 2022; Rosenboom, Langer & Traverso, 2022). They also offer a way to use fewer finite resources, such as petroleum, which is the base material for traditional plastics (Zhao et al., 2023).
Bioplastics can potentially improve waste management. Being biodegradable, they break down into natural elements, reducing plastic waste in landfills and oceans (Folino et al., 2020). Some can be recycled or composted, supporting circular economy practices by promoting reuse and recycling. With an annual production of around two million tonnes, 100% bio-based bioplastics are seen as crucial for future circular economies and for achieving United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Kumar et al., 2021).
These goals include using less toxic substances, developing new recycling methods, and reducing dependence on fossil fuels (Rosenboom, Langer & Traverso, 2022). Bioplastics generally have a lower environmental impact than traditional plastics and offer sustainable alternatives (Altalhi, 2022). Their adoption drives research and innovation in sustainable materials (Palsra & Chauhan, 2020).
Evaluating the environmental impact of bioplastics
This review examines various methods for assessing bioplastics’ popularity and adoption, including life cycle assessments from production to disposal. It also explores production methods, advancements, waste management strategies, and their effects on biodiversity and ecosystems.
The review concludes with practices to reduce environmental impact and promote the sustainable use of bioplastics. Ongoing advancements in bioplastics technology continue to improve their performance, durability, and affordability, increasing their potential for widespread use.
Surveying consumer and industry perspectives
The study used a detailed questionnaire to explore awareness and perceptions of bioplastics. The sample included people from 42 countries, mainly in Europe and Asia (Filho et al., 2022). The survey was designed to gather a range of insights through self-directed responses. It covered demographics, knowledge of bioplastics, consumption habits, concerns, and opinions.
The questionnaire used various answer formats, including multiple-choice and frequency scales, and was carefully reviewed for clarity and relevance. The survey was conducted online via the LimeSurvey platform over 5 months, gathering 384 responses. The data was analyzed using SPSS V.26, with frequency analyses and Chi-square tests examining the relationships between education, age, and gender, using a significance level of 5% (Filho et al., 2022).
Our research aimed to understand the environmental impact of bioplastics, motivated by the growing importance of sustainable materials in addressing environmental issues. We used a carefully designed survey to gather detailed insights from consumers, industry professionals, and environmental experts.
A preliminary test of the survey with a small group was conducted to refine the questions and ensure clarity and objectivity (Bishop, Styles & Lens, 2021). To investigate the environmental effects of bioplastics, we performed an extensive literature review using the PubMed database. We started with search terms like “bioplastics environmental impact” and “sustainable materials footprint” and refined our search to include terms such as “biodegradable plastics life cycle assessment” and “renewable materials carbon footprint.”
We also explored terms like “bioplastic manufacturing environmental effects” and “biodegradable polymer waste management.” This thorough search strategy aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the ecological impacts of bioplastics, forming the basis for our research into their environmental footprint.
The data collection process involved a detailed review of recent publications and relevant literature. This careful approach ensured data accuracy and adherence to established methods. The collected data was thoroughly analyzed to provide a clear and meaningful understanding of various research findings on bioplastics.
Ethical considerations were crucial throughout the survey process. The review clearly explained the study’s purpose and maintained transparency. In summary, this survey methodology was carefully crafted to offer a thorough and reliable examination of the ecological impact of bioplastics. By systematically gathering diverse perspectives and maintaining high ethical standards, the study aimed to provide valuable insights into sustainable materials and environmental conservation.
The rising popularity of bioplastics
In recent years, bioplastics have gained popularity as a sustainable alternative to traditional plastics. Growing global concern about environmental issues has increased interest in bioplastics among individuals, businesses, and governments (Moshood et al., 2021).
Bioplastics are favoured for their reduced carbon footprint, renewable sources, and potential biodegradability (Coppola et al., 2021, Fig. S1). Governments around the world are enacting regulations to promote sustainable materials and reduce plastic waste through bans, taxes, and incentives (Adam et al., 2020; Kiessling et al., 2023). These policies support the growth of bioplastics.
Companies are incorporating sustainability into their strategies, using bioplastics in packaging, manufacturing, and product innovation to meet the rising consumer demand for eco-friendly alternatives (Ashrafi et al., 2019; Westlake et al., 2023). Consumers increasingly prefer brands that use bioplastics, seeing them as responsible and sustainable options (Filho et al., 2022; Galati et al., 2022).
Technological advancements have improved bioplastic manufacturing, research, and material development (Andreeßen & Steinbüchel, 2019). These innovations have made bioplastics more appealing across various industries. Collaboration between governments, industry, and NGOs has driven progress and created sustainable supply chains (Maione, Lapko & Trucco, 2022).
Increased production has made bioplastics more accessible and affordable (Gong et al., 2023). The rise of bioplastics is supported by environmental awareness, regulations, corporate sustainability, consumer demand, technological advancements, and collaborative efforts (Wydra et al., 2021), ensuring their continued growth as a sustainable solution.
Assessing the environmental impact of bioplastics
Evaluating the environmental impact of bioplastics throughout their life cycle—from production to disposal—is essential. While bioplastics are often seen as more eco-friendly than traditional plastics, it is important to assess their specific environmental effects (Atiwesh et al., 2021).
Key concerns include the environmental footprint of feedstock production. Large-scale monoculture farming can lead to deforestation, habitat loss, soil erosion, water pollution from pesticides and fertilizers, and depletion of water resources (Shaheen & Sabir, 2017; Van Roijen & Miller, 2022).
The production of bioplastics involves energy-intensive processes like fermentation, chemical synthesis, and polymerization. The greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from these processes can vary based on the feedstock and production methods used (Chong et al., 2022; Jin et al., 2023). The impact is also affected by the type of energy used in manufacturing.
Addressing excessive carbon dioxide emissions, which contribute to global warming, highlights the need for improved methods of converting carbon dioxide into useful products such as biomethane, bioethanol, polyhydroxybutyrate, and succinic acid. Microorganisms like bacteria, algae, and yeast play a crucial role in this process.
Advances in genetic engineering and machine learning are improving the efficiency of capturing and converting carbon dioxide through various methods including photoautotrophic biosynthesis, dark fermentation, and biodegradation. For instance, Chlorella vulgaris and Cyanobacteria can capture over 90% of carbon dioxide and produce approximately 0.45 g/L/day of biomass in a standard photobioreactor (Akash et al., 2023).
The production of bioplastics can require significant amounts of water for feedstock irrigation, processing, and cooling (Morão & De Bie, 2019). The impact on local water resources depends on regional water availability, so it is important to manage water use sustainably.
Another concern is the competition for feedstock crops, which could affect food security and land use if these crops are grown instead of food crops (Bishop, Styles & Lens, 2022). The water footprint of bioplastics ranges from 1.4 to 9.5 cubic meters per kilogram, while the land footprint ranges from 0.7 to 13.75 square meters per kilogram.
If bioplastics were to replace all fossil-based plastics, the annual water footprint could range from 307 billion to 1,652 billion cubic meters, representing 3% to 18% of the global annual average. Similarly, the land footprint could range from 30 million to 219 million hectares per year, potentially using 8% to 61% of available arable land (Putri, 2018).
To reduce environmental impact and ensure responsible resource use, it is crucial to adopt sustainable sourcing and land management practices for bioplastics production. Effective waste management is also important for biodegradable bioplastics to fully realize their environmental benefits.
Life cycle assessment: a comprehensive evaluation
The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a detailed process used to evaluate the environmental impact of bioplastic products throughout their entire life cycle, from raw material extraction to manufacturing, use, and end-of-life (EOL) management (Gadaleta et al., 2023). This comprehensive analysis covers crucial stages, including raw material sourcing, production, use, and disposal (Ali et al., 2023).
The LCA process begins with clearly defining the assessment’s objectives and scope. This includes specifying the goals, boundaries, functional units (such as per kilogram of bioplastic), and system limits (Salwa et al., 2021; Alhazmi, Almansour & Aldhafeeri, 2021). Once these parameters are established, the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) is conducted, where the collected Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) data is analyzed to assess the potential environmental impacts at various life cycle stages.
This analysis uses different methodological frameworks outlined in scholarly research (Beckstrom et al., 2020; Chalermthai et al., 2021). Identifying environmental hotspots and areas of significant impact through this rigorous analysis enables informed decision-making and strategic actions to reduce environmental footprints (Talwar & Holden, 2022).
The insights gained from LCA can lead to various interventions, such as optimizing processes, integrating renewable energy sources, minimizing waste, and enhancing recycling infrastructure (Ali et al., 2023; Kakadellis & Harris, 2020). Moreover, sharing LCA results through thorough reporting and verification, in line with standards like ISO 14040 and ISO 14044, strengthens the credibility and reliability of the findings.
There is also an option for additional third-party validation to ensure compliance with recognized academic standards (Di Bartolo, Infurna & Dintcheva, 2021). Comparative studies of the carbon, environmental, and water footprints between conventional polypropylene (PP) plastic and bioplastic fibres have shown significant benefits for bioplastics (Broeren et al., 2017).
Specifically, bioplastic fibres have a lower carbon footprint and overall reduced environmental impact compared to PP. Additionally, incorporating starch in the production of biodegradable bioplastics has led to notable reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and non-renewable energy use, highlighting the potential for environmental benefits in bioplastic production (Ali et al., 2023).
However, using starch in bioplastics can increase eutrophication potential and land use compared to petrochemical plastics, indicating the trade-offs in formulation (Ali et al., 2023). Incorporating residual starch residues in bioplastic blends shows promise in mitigating these negative impacts, leading to reductions in land use, eutrophication potential, GHG emissions, and non-renewable energy consumption (Ali et al., 2023).
Additionally, strategies to reduce the water footprint, such as using residual vegetative biomass from various crop sources, offer further opportunities for sustainable production (Ali et al., 2023). Despite these environmental benefits, challenges remain in the commercial viability of bioplastics, particularly polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), due to their higher production costs compared to fossil fuel-derived plastics (Khatami et al., 2021).
Efforts to lower these costs have been hindered by factors such as slow microbial growth, inefficient raw material conversion, high energy demands, and expensive downstream processing (Mannina et al., 2020).
Balancing environmental benefits and economic viability
The study combined the carbon, environmental, and water footprints of regular PP plastic with those of bioplastic fibres. The results showed that bioplastic fibres have a smaller carbon footprint and a lower overall environmental impact compared to PP (Ali et al., 2023).
Using starch in the production of biodegradable bioplastics reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by up to 80% and non-renewable energy use by up to 60% (Broeren et al., 2017). However, compared to petrochemical plastics, starch can increase eutrophication potential by up to 400% and land use by 0.3 to 1.3 square meters per kilogram of bioplastic (Broeren et al., 2017).
Blending starch with residual starch residues can help reduce these impacts, lowering land use by up to 60%, eutrophication potential by up to 40%, GHG emissions by up to 10%, and non-renewable energy use by up to 60%. Additionally, using residual vegetative biomass from various crops can help reduce the water footprint (Broeren et al., 2017).
Despite these environmental benefits, the commercial production of PHA bioplastics remains challenging due to higher costs compared to fossil fuel-based plastics. In 1998, PHA was up to 1,700% more expensive than fossil-based plastic, and while the price has since dropped to around €5 per kilogram, it is still higher than synthetic plastic, which costs between €0.80 and €1.50 per kilogram (Khatami et al., 2021).
The high cost of PHA production is due to slow microbial growth, inefficient raw material conversion, high energy requirements for sterilization and aeration, and expensive downstream processing (Mannina et al., 2020).
Comparing the environmental impact of bioplastics and traditional plastics
The environmental performance of bioplastics can vary depending on factors like feedstock type, farming methods, energy sources, and EOL management options (Benavides, Lee & Zarè-Mehrjerdi, 2020). Additionally, LCA studies should consider not just environmental impacts but also social and economic factors to provide a more comprehensive assessment of sustainability (Bishop, Styles & Lens, 2021).
When comparing the LCA of bioplastics to traditional plastics, it is crucial to consider that bioplastics often rely on renewable resources like plant-based feedstock (e.g., corn, sugarcane, or cellu
